Analysis of the Greenwich Primary Care Trust

Analysis of the Greenwich Primary Care Trust A report describing and analysing the public health contribution of an organisation or initiative of your choice. Greenwich Primary Care Trust Introduction The contribution to public health made by an organisation or agency can be evaluated in relation to a number of features. These can be the range and scope of activities, the relevance for the local area, the effectiveness of the interventions, and their foundation within the boundaries of evidence-based practice. However, public health can also be measured in relation to how well the agency addresses key aspects of public health, including inequalities in health, what these constitute and their impact, and what is being done to address specific inequalities. In addition, known areas of public health need can be assessed in terms of progress made so far and amount of services provided to meet identified targets. This report explores the public health contribution provided by Greenwich Primary Care Trust in their The annual Public Health Report 2007 2008. In this report, which introduces itself using the following frames of reference, â€Å"providing the most up-to-date and local information; thinking ahead as the population is due to grow and change; and making evidence-based recommendations to help prioritise local actions on the key health challenges for the borough† (GPCT, 2008 p 3). Discussion Public health is generally focused on significant health factors and issues which are important to the wider population, rather than to the individual, and impact upon society and social structures and social life, not just on the lives of single people (Pomerleau and McKee, 2005; Orme et al, 2007). Pomerlau and McKee (2005) describe public health as â€Å"the science and art of promoting health and preventing disease through the organized efforts of society† ( p 7). Therefore, it is not surprising that the report focuses very much on language surrounding the identification of key elements of public health which are subject to health promotion within the locality, as being the specific focus of the Trust. Pomerleau and McKee (2005) cite the Ottawa Charter which was concerned with building healthy public policy; creating supportive environments; strengthening community actions; developing personal skills; reorienting health services ; and demonstrating commitment to health prom otion (p 9). These could be considered as signposts to understanding the value of a public health policy published by a specific agency. The report is a clear, detailed and comprehensive report clearly and effectively outlining key areas for health which are viewed as priorities. These include: Improving mental health (especially depression); Reducing cardiovascular disease (chiefly heart attacks and strokes); and reducing cancers (especially lung, bowel, prostate and breast) (GPCT, 2008). The report provides statistics on morbidity and mortality for the borough which demonstrate that in relation to health and disability over the lifespan, these are the most significant health problems and the ones which are, it can be assumed, most urgently requiring attention. All of these foci are very much about health promotion, but when looked at in the context of what is known about these kinds of diseases, all of the other elements of the Ottawa Charter cited above can be seen to affect these health issues. In line with health promotion principles, the report does focus on living longer, on quality of life, and on wellbeing issues, all of which are laudable in relation to public health because they relate both to the individual, and individual desires, and to the aspects of public health which will support and benefit the state (Iphofen, 2003). One of the drawbacks, however, of such a sweeping approach to public health policy, however, is seen in this report as frequently as it is seen in the national, governmental health promotion campaigns, that of over-simplification, and, arguably unconscious, marginalisation of certain individuals. For example, the report, like government public health campaigns, does not take enough notice of the individual fac tors which not only influence health but are not so easy to eradicate, such as the genetic factors influencing health and health behaviours (Hall, 1951). In relation to health promotion in the key health areas identified, the report does acknowledge the issues of lifestyle factors and socio-economic factors affecting health and disease, morbidity and mortality. The report states that both current and historic socio-economic factors, and the diversity of the local population, especially in relation to ethnicity, are considered significant in relation to the most important public health issues. There is a wide range of literature which links social life, socio-economic status and health, and which demonstrates that those who experience inequalities in health are those who are most disadvantaged in social and economic life (Bury and Gabe, 2004). It is also well known that health inequalities increase as the gap between advantage and disadvantage widens, and that certain social or cultural groups are more likely to experience disadvantage and the concomitant inequalities in health (Freund et al, 2003). GPCT (2008) acknowledge this, and fo cus on some important social groups as most suffering disadvantage in the locality, including Black African and Irish populations. They argue that their policies have been designed to demonstrate â€Å"greater targeting of groups at greatest risk of poor health outcomes, and working with these groups to develop approaches that will really work, with a particular focus on the Black African and Irish populations in the borough who have poor outcomes across the major causes of early death and ill health† (p 7). The report also addresses a range of ethnic issues and differences in health. However, it does not go far enough in describing and discussing policy responses to these issues, and to outlining constructive ways to make real progress in these areas. Plenty of literature shows the ethnicity based inequalities in health and the spectrum of disadvantage related to ethnic diversity (Spector, 2002). These kinds of inequalities, which are often racially demarcated, are reflected in global communities, and are no new occurrence (Goeslin et al, 2004). Yet there are ongoing discussions about the ability to address such problems through public health initiatives, even with the inclusion of and best use of healthy public policy (Bury and Gabe, 2004; Pomerleau and McKee (2005). Issues which continue to reflect the cross-sectorial problems surrounding public health include homelessness and poverty (Ryan and Sarikoudis, 2003). The report does address the statistics around economic inequalities and poverty, showing that the borough has a higher proportion of people in lower-paid occupations, which significantly impacts on health. It also addresses some specific issues which emerge from the social health spectrum, including sexual health and young people (Bergmann and Scott, 2001). The report does focus on behavioural aspects of health, and illness, across specific social groups, including young people’s health. Some of the issues presented are similar to those found nationally and internationally, including teenage pregnancy and teenage social isolation (Bergmann and Scott, 2001; Goesling and Firebaugh, 2004). However, there is very little focus on, for example, homelessness as a public health issue, one which affects many of the key points which are being raised in the report. Shah and Cook (2001) for example, show that in one of the key indices of cardiovascular disease, that of hypertension, factors influencing this disease the most are not socioeconomic status but actually social isolation, and homelessness is one of the most severe forms of social isolation that exists in our society. The report cites a number of initiatives which have positively affected health and wellbeing within the borough, but it does not really present any radical or innovative initiatives to address what are ongoing, predictable and somewhat repetitive and recurrent health and lifestyle issues which impact upon morbidity and mortality. There is a great need for different approaches to public health which build upon existing knowledge and incorporate, perhaps, more concrete information. For example, including service user input in the collection, analysis and use of these kinds of data, and in the development of public health policy, should be a significant part of public health activities such as these, and should feature more strongly in these kinds of reports. Yet models of health and social care continue to exclude the patient voice, though in this circumstance it may be complicated by the ethnic and cultural diversity fo the borough (Gagliardi et al, 2008). Conclusion The report discussed identifies the specific public health concerns of this London borough, and demonstrates not only what the most challenging issues are, but how the public health data of mortality and morbidity statistics intersect with some of the socio-economic and cultural statistics of the area. It identifies key areas for health promotion, but does not go far enough in addressing individual differences and the genetic factors which can complicate sweeping statements about causal and affecting factors in health and illness. It demonstrates that public health policies must be focused on local need, and that ongoing concerns are cardiovascular disease, mental illness and cancer. All of these are related to lifestyles, and therefore public health policy also relates to social policy. However, the links between these two could be made much clearer. References Bergman MM, and Scott J (2001) Young adolescents wellbeing and health-risk behaviours: gender and socio-economic differences. Journal of Adolescence. 24, 2, 183-197 Bury, M. and Gabe, J. (2004) The Sociology of Health and Illness: A Reader. London: Routledge. Carr, S.M. (2007) Leading change in public health – factors that inhibit and facilitate energizing the process. Primary Health Care Research and Development. 8 207-215. Freund, P., McGuire, M. Podhurst, L. (2003). Health, Illness and the Social Body London. Gagliardi, A.R., Lemieux-Charles, L, Brown, A.D. et al (2008) Barriers to patient involvement in health service planning and evaluation: An exploratory study. Patient Education and Counseling 70 (2) 234-241. Goesling, B. and Firebaugh, G. (2004) The Trend in International Health Inequality Population and Development Review 30 (1) 131–146. Hall, C.S. (1951) The genetics of behavior. In Stevens, S.S. (ed.), Handbook of Experimental Psychology, 1st ed. John Wiley and Sons, New York, USA 304-329. Harding, G. Taylor, K. (2002) Social Determinants of Health and Illness The Pharmaceutical Journal 269 485-487. Iphofen, R. (2003) Social and individual factors influencing public health. In: Costello, J. Haggart, M. (2003). Public Health and Society Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Orme J, Powell J, Taylor P and Grey M (2007) Public health for the 21st century (second edition) (Chapter 1.) Milton Keynes: Open University Press. Pomerleau J, Mckee M (eds) (2005) Issues in Public Health Milton Keynes: Open University Press Ryan, A. Sarikoudis, V. (2003). ‘The Social Model of Health, Bridging the Gap between the health and homelessness sectors’. Paper Presented at the Third National Homelessness Conference. Shah, S. and Cook, D.G. (2001) Inequalities in the treatment and control of hypertension: age, social isolation and lifestyle are more important than economic circumstances. Journal of Hypertension. 19 (7) 1333-1340. Spector, R.E. (2002) Cultural Diversity in Health and Illness Journal of Transcultural Nursing 13 197.

Communicative Approach

MY BEST APROCHE IN ENGLISH LANGUAJE TEACHING : THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROCHE I. Problems in the present English teaching and causes of these problems II. Introduce the communicative approach 1. The definition of communicative approach 2. Two principles of communicative approach †¢ Create a realistic situation †¢ The class should be students-centered III. Adopt communicative approach to improve students ability to listen and speak, and achieve the goal of English teaching 1. Three stages in communicative teaching 2. Communicative activities in class . Achieve the goal of English teaching through communicative approach IV. Conclusion ____________________________________________________________ _________ Abstract Language is a means of communication. Although it is not the only form of communication among human beings, it is certainly the most important. English teaching is to teach the students how to communicate with each other, to train the students good and complete language ability, to express their ideas correctly and to easily adjust themselves to every kind of social situation. English teaching is a case in point. This paper is to discuss some problems of present English teaching approach, to state the principles and advantages of communicative approach, and to give some advice on how to make the English class more communicative and improve the student’s ability of listening and speaking. I. Problems in the present English teaching and causes of these problems As present, English teaching reform has been carried out in schools, some teaching reform has been succeeded, but there are still some problems in English teaching. The students who have had several years of training in English with classical approaches are still unable to actually use the language. For example, the students can’t understand what the teachers have said and they can’t express themselves, their ability of listening and speaking is not up to standard, and also they can’t communicate with others in English. Now the teachers have been faced with the problem of improving the student’s ability of listening and speaking. II. Introduce the communicative approach 1. The definition of communicative approach Communicative approach refers to the theory of teaching according to the principle that the students and teachers should genuinely communicate with each other using the target language. 2. Two principles of communicative approach Among the numerous principles of communicative approach, there are two pieces of principles, which are more important English teaching. 2. 1 Create more realistic situation The current teaching methods don’t emphasize the real world situations and fail to cultivate student’s spontaneity. Artificial conventions and mechanical question-and-answer sequences fall short of the flexible, spontaneous kind of communicative interaction required for performing a task with the context of situation relevant to the real world. Such classroom teaching forces learners to talk about things that are not of their own choosing and not based on their actual needs. Taught in this way, the learners frequently fail when they are faced with the read to produce the language related to a specific situation. Simulation techniques seem to be a better alternative, as they seek to place learners in a situation where they are asked to take on different roles and to. Accomplish their specific tasks, including problem solving. They offer an opportunity for the learners to practice using the language in the right place at the right time and as appropriately as possible. The most obvious advantage of these kind of techniques is that it puts the learners in realistic situations. By simulating the physical circumstances of certain situations, the students can have the opportunity to use and to practice the sort of language, particularly the vocabulary related to that situation, so that learners are rehearsed for real life. In addition, they can express what they want to say whenever the situation calls for it. The teacher provides the best conditions for learning through creating the realist situation. 2. 2 The class should be students-centered The focus of classroom should be shifted from the teacher to students. The teacher does most the talking and always has the whole class under his strict control by lecturing, questioning, correcting students and often supplying correct answers to the exercises. In such a class, the teacher is obviously the most authoritative person. Students always act according to what the teacher wants them to accomplish put not what they themselves want to accomplish. So it appears that sometimes, even if the students have understood the text they are reading, they do not have the courage to speak out when called upon, for fear that they may not be right. The class should be learners-centered. Communicative approach makes learners to be themselves and requires the classroom instructor to play a secondary role, trying to keep focus on the students not on himself and encouraging students to communicate among themselves. The role and relationship between the teacher and students are fixed by the students-centered principle. It is to say that the students are the main part in communication, while the teacher helps the students to communicate. III. Adopt communicative approach to improve students ability to listen and peaking 1. Three stages of communicative teaching The teacher can divide the student’s learning into three stages: 1. – The first stage, the teacher is a sort of information: he selects material to be learnt and presents it so that the students can understand it and remember it as clearly as possible. The students may do little talking but they should by no means be passive. 2. – The second stage is the p ractice stage. Let the students do the talking organized from cue by the teacher: this practice should be meaningful and memorable. 3. The third stage makes the students to be allowed, under the guidance of the teacher, to use the language freely, even if they make some mistakes as a result. This requires a more flexible attitude from the teachers to mistakes, if the student is constantly stopped and corrected, then eventually he will become discouraged and cease to be motivated to speak. If the students can use the language for themselves, then they become aware that they have learnt something useful and are encouraged to go on learning: perhaps the most important factor is to keep up motivation in the learning process itself. We always talk about listening and speaking together. We must be aware of the fact that oral communication is a two-way process between speakers and listeners. In our class, both the teacher and students are speakers and listeners 2. The class communicative activities Communicative activity provides opportunities for positive personal relationships to develop among learners and teachers. Because of the limitation of the classroom, this requires the teacher to create more various social situations and relationships in the class. 1. Simulation: Learners are asked to imagine themselves in a situation which would occur outside the classroom, and they are asked to behave as if the situation really excited. 2. -Role-playing: is one method of getting the students to imagine they are someone else and play that part. 3. -Discussion: They must present their views in a more public context, there are sticker rules governing who speaks, when and to whom, and a higher level of formality is expecte d. The student’s ability of listening and speaking can be improved in discussions. 4. Interaction: There will also be increasing scope which gives learners greater responsibility for creating the interaction themselves. 5. -Pictures: Extremely useful visual aid. Pictures of people and places are much more interesting than ordinary objects. This is another chance for group work and genuine discussion. Other teaching aids are important techniques for creating a wider variety of social situations and relationships. Communicative activities are very important in language learning. It may be useful to consider briefly what the teacher might hope to achieve through the communicative activity in the classroom. Since this will determine his own attitude toward it and what he gives it in his overall methodology. The learners ultimate objective is to take part in communication with others. Their motivation to learn is more likely to be sustained if they can see how their classroom learning is related to this objective and helps them to achieve it with increasing success. . IV. Conclusion The traditional methods of teaching do not allow the learners to express their own ideas, activities and personality, which is though t to be important especially for students. For example, mechanical drills do not allow the students to express their own ideas, therefore, they will not be interested in listening, and their listening efficiency will be impaired. Under the present situation, communicative approach is a better way to improve our English teaching. For the teachers, the new method means more varieties to devise the lessons; for the students as well, the new method more opportunities to practice their listening and speaking, and to have the freedom to express themselves. Thus, the communicative approach makes the teaching more fulfilling. Just as some linguists have said: English language teaching should be made of communication by communication and for communication. English language teaching is an interdisciplinary subject for which human communication is an important source. The communicative approach is no doubt a manifestation of how this theory can be applied in the student’s English learning. It is a good teaching method to improve the student’s ability of listening and speaking. Communicative Approach MY BEST APROCHE IN ENGLISH LANGUAJE TEACHING : THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROCHE I. Problems in the present English teaching and causes of these problems II. Introduce the communicative approach 1. The definition of communicative approach 2. Two principles of communicative approach †¢ Create a realistic situation †¢ The class should be students-centered III. Adopt communicative approach to improve students ability to listen and speak, and achieve the goal of English teaching 1. Three stages in communicative teaching 2. Communicative activities in class . Achieve the goal of English teaching through communicative approach IV. Conclusion ____________________________________________________________ _________ Abstract Language is a means of communication. Although it is not the only form of communication among human beings, it is certainly the most important. English teaching is to teach the students how to communicate with each other, to train the students good and complete language ability, to express their ideas correctly and to easily adjust themselves to every kind of social situation. English teaching is a case in point. This paper is to discuss some problems of present English teaching approach, to state the principles and advantages of communicative approach, and to give some advice on how to make the English class more communicative and improve the student’s ability of listening and speaking. I. Problems in the present English teaching and causes of these problems As present, English teaching reform has been carried out in schools, some teaching reform has been succeeded, but there are still some problems in English teaching. The students who have had several years of training in English with classical approaches are still unable to actually use the language. For example, the students can’t understand what the teachers have said and they can’t express themselves, their ability of listening and speaking is not up to standard, and also they can’t communicate with others in English. Now the teachers have been faced with the problem of improving the student’s ability of listening and speaking. II. Introduce the communicative approach 1. The definition of communicative approach Communicative approach refers to the theory of teaching according to the principle that the students and teachers should genuinely communicate with each other using the target language. 2. Two principles of communicative approach Among the numerous principles of communicative approach, there are two pieces of principles, which are more important English teaching. 2. 1 Create more realistic situation The current teaching methods don’t emphasize the real world situations and fail to cultivate student’s spontaneity. Artificial conventions and mechanical question-and-answer sequences fall short of the flexible, spontaneous kind of communicative interaction required for performing a task with the context of situation relevant to the real world. Such classroom teaching forces learners to talk about things that are not of their own choosing and not based on their actual needs. Taught in this way, the learners frequently fail when they are faced with the read to produce the language related to a specific situation. Simulation techniques seem to be a better alternative, as they seek to place learners in a situation where they are asked to take on different roles and to. Accomplish their specific tasks, including problem solving. They offer an opportunity for the learners to practice using the language in the right place at the right time and as appropriately as possible. The most obvious advantage of these kind of techniques is that it puts the learners in realistic situations. By simulating the physical circumstances of certain situations, the students can have the opportunity to use and to practice the sort of language, particularly the vocabulary related to that situation, so that learners are rehearsed for real life. In addition, they can express what they want to say whenever the situation calls for it. The teacher provides the best conditions for learning through creating the realist situation. 2. 2 The class should be students-centered The focus of classroom should be shifted from the teacher to students. The teacher does most the talking and always has the whole class under his strict control by lecturing, questioning, correcting students and often supplying correct answers to the exercises. In such a class, the teacher is obviously the most authoritative person. Students always act according to what the teacher wants them to accomplish put not what they themselves want to accomplish. So it appears that sometimes, even if the students have understood the text they are reading, they do not have the courage to speak out when called upon, for fear that they may not be right. The class should be learners-centered. Communicative approach makes learners to be themselves and requires the classroom instructor to play a secondary role, trying to keep focus on the students not on himself and encouraging students to communicate among themselves. The role and relationship between the teacher and students are fixed by the students-centered principle. It is to say that the students are the main part in communication, while the teacher helps the students to communicate. III. Adopt communicative approach to improve students ability to listen and peaking 1. Three stages of communicative teaching The teacher can divide the student’s learning into three stages: 1. – The first stage, the teacher is a sort of information: he selects material to be learnt and presents it so that the students can understand it and remember it as clearly as possible. The students may do little talking but they should by no means be passive. 2. – The second stage is the p ractice stage. Let the students do the talking organized from cue by the teacher: this practice should be meaningful and memorable. 3. The third stage makes the students to be allowed, under the guidance of the teacher, to use the language freely, even if they make some mistakes as a result. This requires a more flexible attitude from the teachers to mistakes, if the student is constantly stopped and corrected, then eventually he will become discouraged and cease to be motivated to speak. If the students can use the language for themselves, then they become aware that they have learnt something useful and are encouraged to go on learning: perhaps the most important factor is to keep up motivation in the learning process itself. We always talk about listening and speaking together. We must be aware of the fact that oral communication is a two-way process between speakers and listeners. In our class, both the teacher and students are speakers and listeners 2. The class communicative activities Communicative activity provides opportunities for positive personal relationships to develop among learners and teachers. Because of the limitation of the classroom, this requires the teacher to create more various social situations and relationships in the class. 1. Simulation: Learners are asked to imagine themselves in a situation which would occur outside the classroom, and they are asked to behave as if the situation really excited. 2. -Role-playing: is one method of getting the students to imagine they are someone else and play that part. 3. -Discussion: They must present their views in a more public context, there are sticker rules governing who speaks, when and to whom, and a higher level of formality is expecte d. The student’s ability of listening and speaking can be improved in discussions. 4. Interaction: There will also be increasing scope which gives learners greater responsibility for creating the interaction themselves. 5. -Pictures: Extremely useful visual aid. Pictures of people and places are much more interesting than ordinary objects. This is another chance for group work and genuine discussion. Other teaching aids are important techniques for creating a wider variety of social situations and relationships. Communicative activities are very important in language learning. It may be useful to consider briefly what the teacher might hope to achieve through the communicative activity in the classroom. Since this will determine his own attitude toward it and what he gives it in his overall methodology. The learners ultimate objective is to take part in communication with others. Their motivation to learn is more likely to be sustained if they can see how their classroom learning is related to this objective and helps them to achieve it with increasing success. . IV. Conclusion The traditional methods of teaching do not allow the learners to express their own ideas, activities and personality, which is though t to be important especially for students. For example, mechanical drills do not allow the students to express their own ideas, therefore, they will not be interested in listening, and their listening efficiency will be impaired. Under the present situation, communicative approach is a better way to improve our English teaching. For the teachers, the new method means more varieties to devise the lessons; for the students as well, the new method more opportunities to practice their listening and speaking, and to have the freedom to express themselves. Thus, the communicative approach makes the teaching more fulfilling. Just as some linguists have said: English language teaching should be made of communication by communication and for communication. English language teaching is an interdisciplinary subject for which human communication is an important source. The communicative approach is no doubt a manifestation of how this theory can be applied in the student’s English learning. It is a good teaching method to improve the student’s ability of listening and speaking.

The Conitnuity Of Supply In Global Market Finance Essay - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 9 Words: 2671 Downloads: 10 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Economics Essay Type Research paper Did you like this example? There is a constant pressure on managers to improve the efficiency of their supply chains, allowing material to move quickly and at low cost. The pressure has encouraged a stream of new initiatives and methods, but still there is a growing realization that these new methods also bring unforeseen problems. (Blanchard, 2007) Risks to the supply chain are unforeseen events that might interrupt the smooth flow of materials. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The Conitnuity Of Supply In Global Market Finance Essay" essay for you Create order When a company delivers materials to its markets, there are always risks that the delivery will be later than promised, the goods will be damaged or lost, the wrong products will be delivered or the wrong amounts, the delivery will go the wrong place. Risk can appear at any point in a supply chain from initial suppliers through to final customers. They can interrupt the supply of materials or the demand for products and they can cause sudden peaks in demand or collapses. (Ram, 2009) They aim of this study is to assess various risks involved in supply multiple markets of the companies and also to suggest what action do the retailers need to take in order to maintain continuity to supply. TYPES OF RISKS Internal risk The internal risks arise from operations within the company such as quality issues, accidents, procurement, foreign exchange rate and risks that arise directly from managers decisions are stock level, late delivery, etc. (Hugos, 2006) Supply chain risk These are the risks which are external but with the supply chain. These risks occur from the interactions between members of supply chain and are mostly risks from suppliers, reliability of materials, lead times, delivery problems and industrial action.(Leeman, 2007) External risk The risks which are external to the company and supply chain and arise from the interactions with its environment such as, natural disasters, delays, inventory, and damages are referred as external risks. (Hugos, 2006) PROCUREMENT Procurement risk refers to the increase of acquisition costs which results in fluctuating exchange rates or price hikes by supplier. It is a very complex activity and indentifies the need for materials and then someone to generate the material, search for suppliers, request for a price and conditions, issue purchase orders and many other activities. It is always an area of high risk typically emerging from disagreements and over interpretation and implementation of contracts. Suppliers delay the processing returns and force to increase price of which leads to transportation costs. (Long, 2003) But the prices increases by the suppliers can be decreased in several ways like, singing long-term contracts, having redundant suppliers and holding inventories. But whereas, the long-term purchasing can also badly damage profits if prices for the contracted goods fall. Contracting with redundant suppliers work, but only if the companies can maintain economies of scale. (Plunkett, 2009) DISRUPTIONS A disruption caused to the goods flows anywhere in the supply chain is unpredictable and rare but often quite damaging. Natural disasters, labour strikes, fires are some of the examples which can halt down the flow of goods. The company can counter disruptions in goods flow by holding inventory, but however holding inventory can become very costly. Holding costs can incur continuously and the inventory must be used only in the rare event of a disruption. For the products which hold high costs or a higher rate of obsolescence, using redundant suppliers is a better strategy.Wal-mart can lower the cost of redundancy by using multiple suppliers for high-volume products and single sourcing for lower volume products. This approach helps the company lower the risk do disruption. (Reynolds, 2003) DELAYS Delay in goods flow can occur when a supplier, with high utilization or any other cause cannot respond to the changes in demand. Some the other causes are poor quality output at suppliers. High levels of inspection during border crossings and changing transportation modes during shipping can cause these delays. However, company can plan for mitigating strategies if the delays are very frequent. The company can avoid these delays by appropriately placing their capacity and inventory reserves. One simple solution can be applied is to maintain the flexibility capacity in existing company. Delays can occur at five points in transport: at the point of collection from a supplier, during actual transport, at transhipment or intermodal depots, during security or customs checks and at the point of delivery to a customer. (Boudreaux, 2008) INVENTORY Excess inventory hurts the financial performances and falling prices hurt many companies. The inventory risks depends on three factors; the value of product, its rate of obsolescence and uncertainty of demand and supply. Holding excess inventory for products with high value or short life cycles can get expensive. However, for low-value commodity products that have low obsolescence rates can complicate matters further. By measuring the level of inventory and analyzing turnover, supply chain systems can improve turnover by reducing the need for safety stocks and the risk of the retailer out of stocks. The inventory items need to be numbered consistently in order to facilitate measurement and tracking. These benefits reduce the overhead required to store high inventory levels. (Sadler, 2007) TRADE BARRIERS In order to protect industries, there are a number of trade barriers generated to raise revenue and to counter the barriers erected by other foreign countries. These barriers create a distortion of relative prices across countries, also the lower individual welfare and individual consumption (Donald, et al., 2007). Some of the barriers to trade are: Tariffs A tariff is nothing but a tax placed on goods which are imported into a country. It is a means of protecting domestic industries and creating revenue. By placing tax on imported goods, a tariff on the price of the goods is raised and it allows certain domestic producers to produce at higher levels. Resources can be diverted away from industries which have a competitive advantage to industries which does not have a competitive advantage of a country. This diversion creates higher prices and lower quality of goods which are produced domestically. Hence, trade-off exists between specific industries and the welfare of the customers (Leeman, 2010). Quotas A quota is policy tool to restrict a trade by limiting the amount of product that can be imported during a given period. Sometimes, quota is referred as a quantitative restriction. These restrictions create high prices on goods and reduce the amount of competition within that industry. A variation of the quota system is a voluntary export restriction. The good which have quota are placed against the goods that the country does not have a competitive advantage, because the country does not have a competitive advantage. Therefore the selling price of the product will be higher than the prices of the products in the other country. This will eventually affect the consumers for paying higher prices for the goods that have restrictions placed on it (Mangan, et al., 2008). Duties Duties are often applied as an ad valorem tax and are based upon the value of the good or the weight of the goods. This kind of tax is imposed by the customs authority on the imported goods. The similarities between tariff and duties are same as it raises the price of the imports and distorts the relative price of the goods and consumption patterns (Branch, 2006). Exchange Rate Controls Many developed or under developed nations be more protective of their economies and want to be self-reliant to encourage the domestic industries. Therefore in attempt to protect the domestic markets, nations often create exchange barriers which reduce the fluctuation of foreign currency and also the ability of a country to buy imports. Customers are forced to purchase the domestic products which create an artificial domestic economy (Li, 2007). There has been a cut-off in the tariff rates across the countries, but still there are a number of other barriers which often take place of the tariff. Some the barriers include licensing, requirements, government, procurement, technical standards, price bands, subsidies and domestic-content rules (Hugos, 2006). DOCUMENTATION A major difference in the domestic and international trade is the evidence of documents needs to transfer cargo. In international trade the documentation is very complex and those preparing it must have in-depth knowledge of the options available in such areas as goods classification. It is very important in the international trade, because the documents involved determine how each shipment is to be handled along with its associated costs. A significant part of the information required in them must be provided by supply chain or logistics managers (Donald, et al., 2007). All the international transfer cargo must have documentation available with the goods at all border points. Documentation can be transmitted electronically to the point, however, it must be physically present before goods can pass through customs. International transactions are complex, and resolving any problems with them can be extremely costly and time consuming. It is important to ensure that full precaut ions are taken when preparing international documents (Branch, 2006). GLOBALISATION Improved communications and allowing of organisations around the world to communicate become global in outlook. Broadening the supplier and customer bases to buy, transport, store, manufacture, sell and distribute products in a single worldwide market encourage global operations. The global operations brings some of the risks to the companies as well starting from natural disasters to risks like war and terrorism and problems with supply chain partners, financial risks and different language and culture. Some of the risks that companies can face with globalization are: (Christopher, 2010) Risks from working in a region that is less familiar and more distant from the companies usual operations. This includes control over remote sites, cultural and language problems economic conditions and changing costs. Risks of moving materials through longer supply chains, which include inherent risks of extended journeys, crossing international borders, meeting different cultures and more stock in transit. Unexpected barriers to trade such as product design limiting demand, different regions demanding different types of products, customer simply not liking products. (Donald, et al., 2007) RESPONDING TO RISKS After assessing the risks of supply to the multiple markets, there some responses suggested to minimize the risk and find out what responses can be made. There is corresponding huge number of responses for the minimization of risk and also different ways to different kind of risks, few of them which are also major responses to the needs of organizations are: REDUCE VARIABLITY Risk emerges from variability, so a valid response is to reduce variability in operations. This has been continuing in quality of management, which says that organization can benefit by making products with perfect quality, and this means reducing variability to a minimum. There has been a change in the variability in recent years. A traditional view specifies an acceptable range for specifications, and performance and is considered if it stays within range. The organizations should clearly aim at minimizing the cost in this loss function, and this means getting the actual performance as close to the target as possible. This reduces variability, hence the risk as well in a process. Most organizations actively do this as part of their quality management function, so risk becomes inextricably limited with product quality (Branch, 2006). REDUCING THE PROBABILITY OF THE RISK Managers need to take actions to reduce the probability of risk. For example a shipment being attacked by pirates is surprisingly high risk for cargo ship operators in some part of the world. A way of avoiding this kind of risk is to find out the other way of routes to avoid the dangerous areas. A firm that is worried by environmental or political factor risks can move to a location where these cause less concern. At basic level, warehouses can reduce the shortages by increasing the stock levels. Delivery firms can reduce the chance of late arrivals by allowing more time for journeys where a firm worried by uncertain demand can improve its forecasting (Jespersen Larsen 2005). There are two ways of reducing the risks: Take actions to reduce the probability that an event will occur for examples, increasing stocks of materials with widely varying demand. Avoiding operations where the risk occurs for examples, finding substitute products that have less variable demand. The ot her ways of reducing risk includes careful choice of location, having good relation with partners, partnerships arrangements for arbitration and negotiation, adequate safety measures, learning from experiences, solving underlying problems, involving everyone in the organization, identifying problem early and host of other methods (Hugos, 2006). IMPROVE PLANNING AND FORECASTS The risk can be reduced by improving forecasts and plans. A common reason for problems in the supply chain is from inaccurate plans and forecasts. The organizations plans on one level of expected demand, but unexpectedly has to perform for another level. The usual way of achieving this is to move to more formal quantitative forecasting methods. Other considerations are that short-term forecasts are in more accurate than longer-terms ones, and aggregate forecasts are more accurate than disaggregated ones. The more accurate forecasts should include an idea of likely variation, and this helps with subsequent planning. The plans can also be improves by design by improved procedures and closer cooperation between the people who design the plans and those who have to execute them. There is often artificial break between these two functions, but better coordination-with integrated planning and execution can reduce many risks (Mangan, et al., 2008). PREVENTING DISRUPTIONS One of the most effective ways to manage supply chain risks is to keep them from happening. The companies can use data and analysis to significantly reduce the likelihood of supply chain disruption. Loss analysis and engineering data have shown that to prevent a fire in the companies factory, a company should regulate the storage, use and disposal of flammable materials, keep mechanical equipment in good working order. (Zsidisin, 2008) The challenge have been extended more because of globalization and variety of independent suppliers, shippers and other vendors over whom the company has no direct control and which, in every instance add a new layer of risk to supply chain. It is possible to identify key products, revenue drivers and core business processes in supply chain management that could disrupt them. Most of the companies rush to revamp their supply chain without giving much thought to measures the future risks. (Chopra and Meindl, 2009) ADJUSTING THE DESIGN OF SUPPLY CHAIN One of the obvious responses to risk is to adjust the designs of the supply chain so that it has less risk. The most important feature of a low risk supply chain is that it has parallel paths. There are several variations on this theme, such as multiple sourcing, alternative transport routes and outsourcing. Another response is to reduce the length of the chain. Despite the company is globalized, there are obvious benefits from having products move through fewer organizations and travelling shorter distances. Specifically, there are fewer things to go wrong and less risk. Low risk supply chains are clearly shorter and wider, and a number of other design features. (Chopra and Meindl, 2009) MITIGATING DAMAGE When a major disruption occurs in supply chain, a quick response can help in minimising the consequences. Successfully accomplishing this requires having two measures in place before the disruption occurs. The business continuity plan and an insurance program with ample and stable capacity that can reimburse a company for operational and financial losses directly attributes to an interruption of business activities. A business continuity plan should be both broad and deep, covering a wide range of contingencies like disaster recovery, the safety of employees, the retrieval of backup business data, emergency communications, the possible relocation of business operations. (Christopher, 2010) INSURANCE Insurance is one of the best ways to mitigate risks, but it is somewhat different from other responses to risk. It does not try to maintain supply chain, but it offers compensation when things go wrong. Most ways of dealing with risk try to avoid its effects of using methods that we can combine under the heading of continuity planning, which tries to maintain normal operations through unexpected circumstances. The insurance discourages other responses to risk as; a company will be recompensed for any disruptions are likely to put less effort into avoiding them (Branch, 2006).

Civil Rights Movement At Mid Century Essay - 1196 Words

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